What makes a good garden? Some spaces simply feel comfortable – they flow nicely, have logical places for pause and relaxation and simply feel good to be in. While others, regardless of how much money and effort have been spent on them, don’t feel quite right.
Renowned Spanish landscape designer Fernando Caruncho believes you know an authentic garden not when you see it, but when you feel it. “When you enter a real garden, time stops,” he says. “You know immediately that you are in a special place. You are transformed.”
Whether you know it or not, there are probably some theories and forces at play in good gardens that you may not be aware of – and the good news is, you can incorporate some of them into your own space.
You may also like:
10 garden design mistakes and how to avoid them
How to design your garden
How to design a sloping garden
6 garden design theories that will transform your garden
Genius loci
Garden designers often talk about genius loci, a Latin term that means ‘spirit of the place'. It refers to the unique atmosphere and character of a garden and its location.
The idea of genius loci has been used for centuries. “Anyone who has ever visited Rousham will almost certainly have experienced the profoundly serene and energising spirit of this garden where in the 18th century, the landscape designer and polymath William Kent worked with the lay of the land to create one of our most inspiring gardens,” says landscape architect Marian Boswall.
When landscape designer Fernando Caruncho starts working on a project, he visits the site several times to discover the genius loci. “When you approach a place for the first time, it is like meeting a person,” he says. “You have to spend some time with them, get to know them.” Fernando also walks a lot in the surroundings outside the garden, as for him the key to a successful design is the synergy of the architecture of the house with the garden, and the garden with the wider landscape.
In their book, Bold Romantic Gardens, legendary US design duo Oehme, van Sweden wrote that they also chose materials for the garden that were widely found locally. They pointed out, however, that cities often allow more freedom in this respect: “In a way, there is more freedom to use new ideas and materials in a city, where there is often no visible tie to the regional landscape.”
The golden mean
The golden mean, also known as the golden ratio, is a mathematical proportion that makes a space feel naturally balanced. The ratio of approximately 1.618:1 is often found in nature, art (including Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa) architecture (including the Parthenon in Greece) and design.
The golden ratio is closely related to the Fibonacci sequence (spirals in shells, flowers, and galaxies follow Fibonacci-based proportions). As you move further along in the Fibonacci sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, …) the ratio between consecutive numbers approaches 1.618 (the golden ratio).
In garden design, the golden mean helps guide proportions and layouts making spaces feel both structured and organic. Its cousin is the ‘golden rectangle’, which can be used for rectangular raised beds, terraces, seating areas, lawns and pergolas. The ratio of the short side to the long side is equal to the ratio of the long side to the sum of both sides – ie 1:1.6. For example, a lawn could measure 5m x 8m.
Prospect-refuge theory
Prospect-refuge theory was introduced by geographer Jay Appleton in 1975 and describes how people instinctively prefer spaces that provide a balance between prospect (a clear, open view) and refuge (a sense of shelter and protection).
“By tapping into primal instincts – balancing open views that evoke safety and awareness with sheltered spaces that provide comfort and protection – places feel naturally inviting and secure, and planting plays a key role in that," explains designer Charlotte Harris. "Even a simple bench in a garden should feel embraced; shrubs, evergreens or chunky swathes of perennials and grasses, for example, can help provide this, while enjoying the outlook in front."
Holding the space
Linked to the idea of prospect-refuge is the idea of ‘holding the space’. It refers to how elements within the garden create a sense of containment, presence, and purpose, creating a space where people naturally want to linger.
“When designing a garden, one of the first steps is to thoughtfully place the structural elements that will hold and balance the space,” explains garden designer Matt Evans. “Trees, shrubs, and other structural elements not only bring their own gravity, but also play a vital role in balancing the existing structural elements within the garden. Beyond providing a sense of balance and enclosure, these elements can also guide movement and create moments where you are encouraged to slow down and observe your surroundings. I love placing trees so that their canopies gently extend over seating areas, crafting a comfortable, human-scale environment that feels intimate and welcoming. What could be better than sipping a pot of green tea under the canopy of a beautiful Paulownia kawakamii?”
Matt advises: “Before deciding if your space needs something to hold it, I recommend spending time observing how you feel within it. Do you feel grounded and safe, or exposed and uneasy? Some spaces benefit from being open, while others call for more intimacy. Any new structural elements should be carefully balanced with existing ones to ensure the garden feels cohesive without becoming overwhelming. Whatever you decide, the key is to create a space that resonates with your own sense of comfort and feels connected to the environment, allowing it to feel both inviting and grounded.”
Hortus conclusus
A hortus conclusus, Latin for "enclosed garden", was traditionally found in medieval monasteries, cloisters, and Renaissance estates. Often walled, it was a secluded, contemplative space. Today, the idea of a hortus conclusus inspires modern courtyard gardens, retreats and small urban sanctuaries, offering a tranquil escape from busy surroundings.
Key features of a hortus conclusus include enclosure – the space is surrounded by walls, hedges, pleached trees or trellises to create a sense of privacy, symmetry and order. It is often designed with geometric patterns, pathways, and central focal points such as an arbour or water feature. The planting often includes medicinal herbs, fruit trees and flowering plants.
Voronoi patterns
Voronoi patterns are organic-looking patterns similar to the natural geometry of shapes found in nature, such as honeycombs, leaf veins, cracked earth, and cellular structures. These organic patterns can be echoed in a garden layout, especially when creating planting beds.
At RHS Garden Bridgewater in Salford, Tom Stuart-Smith has designed the arrival section of the gardens using a mosaic-like layout for the planting beds, creating a flowing and intuitive visitor experience. “The design is based on the mathematical principles of Voronoi patterns,” explains Charlotte Harris. “Tom has then also balanced the bed sizes to give a congruence of relationship between them.
“The gentle curving of the corners gives a soft and organic feel while also reducing the likelihood of visitors cutting across sharp corners, which can create unwanted desire lines through or on the edges of the planting.”